Close Window
ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLE
Automotive engine
The component of the motor vehicle that converts the chemical energy in fuel into mechanical energy for power. The
automotive engine also drives the generator and various accessories, such as the air-conditioning compressor and
power-steering pump. See also: Automotive climate control; Automotive electrical system; Automotive steering
Early motor vehicles were powered by a variety of engines, including steam and gasoline, as well as by electric
motors. The flexibility of the gasoline engine operating on the four-stroke Otto cycle soon made this engine
predominant, and it remains the dominant automotive power plant. The basic modern automotive engine (see illus.)
is a gasoline-burning, liquid-cooled, spark-ignition, four-stroke-cycle, multicylinder engine. It has the intake and
exhaust valves in the cylinder head, and electronically controlled ignition and fuel injection. See also: Engine
Automotive engine, which has six cylinders, double-overhead camshafts, 24-valve electronic coil-on-plug spark ignition, and
multiport fuel injection. (Oldsmobile Division, General Motors Corp.)
Page 1 of 4 McGraw-Hill's AccessScience
9/22/2008 http://www.accessscience.com/popup.aspx?id=064300&name=printOtto-cycle engine
An Otto-cycle engine is an internal combustion piston engine that may be designed to operate on either two strokes or
four strokes of a piston that moves up and down in a cylinder. Generally, the automotive engine uses four strokes to
convert chemical energy to mechanical energy through combustion of gasoline or similar hydrocarbon fuel. The heat
produced is converted into mechanical work by pushing the piston down in the cylinder. A connecting rod attached to
the piston transfers this energy to a rotating crankshaft. See also: Gasoline; Internal combustion engine; Otto cycle
Cylinder arrangement
Engines having from 1 to 16 cylinders in in-line, flat, horizontally opposed, or V-type cylinder arrangements have
appeared in production vehicles, progressing from simple single-cylinder engines at the beginning of the twentieth
century to complex V-12 and V-16 engines by the early 1930s. Increased vehicle size and weight played a major role
in this transition, requiring engines with additional displacement and cylinders to provide acceptable performance.
High-volume usage of the V-8 engine began in the mid-1930s and accelerated dramatically after World War II, until it
was the predominant engine used in American-built vehicles by the late 1950s. Manufacturers in other countries
continued large-volume production of smaller engines with four and six cylinders, primarily because of significantly
higher fuel costs. As vehicle size and weight increased, average engine displacement also increased until the early
1970s, when V-8 engines approaching 500 in.
3 (8 liters) displacement were in production. However, oil shortages in
1973–1974 and 1979–1980 reversed this trend, and V-8 engine usage dropped in favor of engines with four and six
cylinders.
Turbocharger and supercharger
To provide acceptable vehicle performance with a smaller engine, forced induction may be used. A turbocharger or
supercharger forces more air into the intake manifold, allowing the engine to burn more fuel and produce more power.
The turbocharger is a centrifugal air compressor driven by an exhaust-gas-powered turbine mounted on a common
shaft. The energy in the exhaust gas spins the turbine, which spins the compressor, forcing more air or air-fuel
mixture into the combustion chambers. In a typical passenger car, this may increase engine power output by up to
40%.
A supercharger, which is belt-driven from the engine crankshaft, may be used instead of a turbocharger. The
supercharger does not have the brief acceleration lag, or so-called turbo lag, that is found objectionable by many
drivers of vehicles with turbocharged engines. See also: Automobile; Combustion chamber; Compressor; Muffler;
Supercharger; Turbine; Turbocharger
Emissions
In the United States, passenger-car emission standards became effective in California in 1966 and in the other 49
states in 1968. These regulations began placing limits on crankcase, exhaust, and evaporative emissions into the
atmosphere. The limits became increasingly stringent over the years, requiring the use of catalytic converters and
unleaded gasoline beginning with 1975-model cars. Because more accurate fuel metering and ignition timing were
required on engines to meet the tightening standards, electronic controls became necessary. As a result, fuel injection
replaced the carburetor on automotive engines.
Electronic controls
Ignition, fuel, and emissions systems are integrated under an electronic engine control system. The system utilizes an
onboard computer to provide management of various engine-operating parameters and emissions devices. The
computer, known as the powertrain control module, may also control shifting of the automatic transmission or
transaxle.
Engine design trends
Page 2 of 4 McGraw-Hill's AccessScience
9/22/2008 http://www.accessscience.com/popup.aspx?id=064300&name=printIn many automotive engines, the camshaft, which operates the intake and exhaust valves, has been moved from the
cylinder block to the cylinder head (see illus.). This overhead-camshaft arrangement allows the use of more than two
valves per cylinder, with various multivalve engines having three to five. Some overhead-camshaft engines have only
one camshaft, while others have two camshafts, one for the intake valves and one for the exhaust valves. A V-type
engine may have four camshafts, two for each bank of cylinders. Some multivalve overhead-camshaft engines have
the power and performance of a turbocharged engine of similar size.
Most engines have fixed valve timing, regardless of number of camshafts or their location. Variable valve timing can
improve fuel economy and minimize exhaust emissions, especially on multivalve engines. At higher speeds, volumetric
efficiency can be increased by opening the intake valves earlier. One method drives the camshaft through an
electrohydraulic mechanism that, on signal from the engine computer, rotates the intake camshaft ahead about 10°.
Another system varies both valve timing and valve lift by having two cam lobes, each with a different profile, that the
computer can selectively engage to operate each valve. Computer-controlled solenoids for opening and closing the
valves will allow elimination of the complete valve train, including the camshaft, from the automotive piston engine
while providing variable valve timing and lift.
Materials trends
Historically, major engine components have been made from ferrous metals, either by casting or by forging. However,
emphasis on weight reduction for improved fuel economy has greatly increased the usage of aluminum for cylinder
blocks, cylinder heads, and other engine components. Some engine covers and intake manifolds are made of
magnesium. Internal engine parts, such as connecting rods, sprockets, oil-pump rotors, and valve guides, are cast or
forged to nearly net shape using powder metallurgy. High-speed engines may use titanium connecting rods to reduce
reciprocating mass. See also: Powder metallurgy
Parts such as engine covers, intake manifolds, and oil pans also can be fabricated of plastic or composite materials.
These materials provide weight savings while reducing engine noise and vibration. Ceramic engine parts and coatings
will allow engine operation at higher temperatures, raising engine efficiency. Ceramic-lined exhaust ports in the
cylinder head can lower its temperature while increasing the effectiveness of the catalytic converter.
Fuel-metering trends
With the introduction of electronic controls, a device was added to the carburetor to automatically adjust the air-fuel
ratio in response to feedback from an exhaust-gas oxygen sensor. Demand for more accurate fuel metering resulted in
the feedback carburetor being replaced by a similarly located throttle-body fuel-injection unit. It meters fuel through
the computer-controlled pulsing of one or two solenoid-operated fuel injectors. Further improvements in engine power,
fuel economy, and exhaust emissions are provided by multiport fuel injection, which places a fuel injector in each
intake port. Solenoid-operated fuel injectors can be pulsed or energized in simultaneous, group, or sequential
fashion—the last energizes each injector individually in firing-order sequence.
Ignition trends
On many automotive engines, the ignition distributor has been replaced with computer-controlled distributorless
ignition; this in turn is being replaced with coil-on-plug or direct ignition, in which an ignition coil sits directly above,
and is connected to, each spark plug. Some engines have two spark plugs per cylinder to provide higher power output
with cleaner combustion and less tendency for spark knock, or detonation. Spark knock can be monitored by a knock
sensor, which signals the computer for less spark advance to prevent engine damage. The knock sensor also is used,
especially with a supercharger or turbocharger, to allow engine operation on a more economical, lower-octane-rated
fuel than otherwise would be required.
Onboard diagnostic developments
An onboard computer with self-diagnostic capability has become standard equipment for automotive engine control.
Page 3 of 4 McGraw-Hill's AccessScience
9/22/2008 http://www.accessscience.com/popup.aspx?id=064300&name=printThe first generation of onboard diagnostics (OBD I) identified the failure of certain emission-control components. The
second generation (OBD II), required for 1996 and later model vehicles, has additional capability, including detection
of deterioration in performance of emission-control components throughout the life of the vehicle.
Alternative engines
Alternative engine designs have been investigated as replacements for the four-stroke Otto-cycle piston engine,
including the two-stroke, diesel, Stirling, Wankel rotary, gas turbine, and steam engines, as well as electric motors and
hybrid power plants. However, only two engines are in mass production as automotive power plants: the four-stroke
gasoline engine described above, and the diesel engine. Continuing improvements to the Otto-cycle piston engine,
such as electronic controls and value actuation and other changes in design and materials, appear to assure its
predominance in the short term. See also: Battery; Diesel engine; Electric vehicle; Fuel cell; Gas turbine; Motor;
Power plant; Rotary engine; Solar cell; Steam engine; Stirling engine
Donald L. Anglin
Bibliography
l H. Heisler, Advanced Engine Technology, Society of Automotive Engineers and Edward Arnold, 1995
How to cite this article
Donald L. Anglin, "Automotive engine", in AccessScience@McGraw-Hill, http://www.accessscience.com, DOI
10.1036/1097-8542.064300
Copyright ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the
Terms of Use and Privacy Notice. Additional credits and copyright information. Customer Privacy
Notice
Page 4 of 4 McGraw-Hill's AccessScience
9/22/2008 http://www.accessscience.com/popup.aspx?id=064300&name=print
Saturday, December 4, 2010
How to improve engines for better performance
1
Please send comments to Tom.Palmer@aeat.co.uk, Nikolas.Hill@aeat.co.uk, Johannes.VonEinem@aeat.co.uk, Yvonne.Li@aeat.co.uk (Authors), and
to Giorgio.Simbolotti@enea.it and Giancarlo Tosato (gct@etsap.org), Project Coordinators
© IEA ETSAP - Technology Brief T01 – April 2010 - www.etsap.org
Advanced Automotive Gasoline Engines
HIGHLIGHTS
„ PROCESS AND TECHNOLOGY STATUS – Internal combustion engine technology is constantly evolving. A
number of improvements in gasoline-powered vehicles have been made to optimize combustion, improve fuel economy
and reduce emissions. Examples of advanced gasoline technologies include reduced engine friction losses, direct
gasoline injection, engine downsizing with turbocharger, variable valve actuation (VVA) and homogeneous
charge compression ignition (HCCI). The majority of these technologies are already commercially available or close
to being on the market. Although HCCI technology is still under development for both gasoline and diesel engines, it
promises improvement in fuel economy and exceptionally low NOx and soot emissions.
„ PERFORMANCE AND COSTS – A study by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2008) presents the
potential CO2 reduction and incremental compliance costs for a number of advanced gasoline technologies as compared
to conventional port-fuelled injection vehicles. The costs account for both direct manufacturing costs and indirect costs.
The technologies covered - and related CO2 reduction and incremental compliance costs in 2006 US dollars – include a)
engine friction reduction (1-3%, $0-126); b) homogeneous direct injection (1-2% $122-525); c) stratified direct injection
(9-14%, $872-1275); d) downsizing with turbocharging (6-9%, $120-690); e) variable valve timing (1-4%, $59-209); f)
variable valve control (3-6%, $169-1262); and g) cylinder deactivation (6%, $203).
„ POTENTIAL AND BARRIERS – Car ownership is expected to grow in many OECD countries as well as in
emerging economies. Demanding environmental concerns and fuel economy standards, as well as increasing fuel
prices, are the major drivers for advancement in engine technologies. The IEA study Energy Technology Perspectives
(IEA, 2008) suggests that improving the fuel economy of light-duty vehicles (car, small van and sport utility vehicles)
would be one of the most important and cost-effective measures to help reduce CO2 emissions in the transport sector.
Given the maturity of some advanced gasoline technologies, and the near-term and cost-effective solutions they can
offer to energy and emissions concerns, there is neither technical-economic nor infrastructure barrier for deployment,
although some technical bottlenecks have to be solved for technologies such as the HCCI.
________________________________________________________________________________
TECHNOLOGY STATUS AND PERFORMANCE -
Advanced gasoline technologies include a variety of
new components and systems aimed at optimizing
combustion and thereby improving the fuel economy
and reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases and
other pollutants. Major innovations are listed in Table 1.
„ Reduced engine friction technologies include
systems, components and materials that minimize the
friction between moving metal parts in the engine.
These technologies are available in a significant
number of engine designs [1]. Several friction reduction
opportunities have been identified in piston surfaces
and rings, crankshaft design, improved material
coatings and roller cam followers. Various studies
suggest that the CO2 reduction potential for engine
friction reduction technologies may range from 1-5%
[1,2,3].
„ In the gasoline direct injection (DI) engines, fuel is
injected at high pressure directly into the combustion
chamber rather than into air intake manifolds. The key
advantage is the improvement in fuel efficiency. The
technology was developed more than 10 years ago and
a number of different manufacturers are now using
these types of engines in commercially available
vehicles. The use of sulphur-free fuels is necessary to
obtain the maximum benefit from this technology.
Depending on the ignition and combustion mode and on
the formation process of the mixture, DI engines can be
categorized in homogeneous charge, and stratified
charge, spark ignition. In the homogeneous charge
(stoichiometric) DI engines, a high-pressure fuel
injector sprays fuel directly into the combustion
chamber early enough in the cycle to promote
homogeneous fuel-air mixing. These engines have the
potential to reduce hydrocarbon emissions, increase
power and improve fuel economy, while taking
advantage of the highly-effective catalytic after-
treatment systems, the same as the port fuel injection
(PFI) engines. Various studies suggest a CO2 emission
reduction potential ranging from 1-5% [1,3,4] in
comparison with PFI and multi-point injection. These
engines are often supplemented with turbo-charging,
supercharging1
, or both2
. They are available from
1
Turbochargers and superchargers are air compressors that
allow more air into an engine; turbochargers are powered by
exhaust gases, while superchargers run directly on engine
power.
Table 1 – Advanced Technologies for Gasoline Engines
Technology Status
Reduced Engine Friction Losses Production
Direct Gasoline Injection (incl.
homogeneous/ stratified charge)
Production
Downsizing with Turbocharging Production
Variable Valve Actuation Production
Cylinder Deactivation Production
Variable Compression Ratio Prototype
Homogeneous charge compression ignition
(HCCI)
Prototype
2
Please send comments to Tom.Palmer@aeat.co.uk, Nikolas.Hill@aeat.co.uk, Johannes.VonEinem@aeat.co.uk, Yvonne.Li@aeat.co.uk (Authors), and
to Giorgio.Simbolotti@enea.it and Giancarlo Tosato (gct@etsap.org), Project Coordinators
© IEA ETSAP - Technology Brief T01 – April 2010 - www.etsap.org
several automobile companies worldwide, and more
deployment is expected in the near future. Stratified
charge DI engines involve concentrating fuel spraying
close to the spark plug rather than throughout the whole
of the combustion chamber. The aim is to produce an
overall lean stratified mixture. These engines operate
in at least two modes, depending on load and speed.
During low-load and low-speed operation, the engine
runs with a stratified charge and with lean mixtures. At
high-load and high-speed operation, the engine
operates as a stoichiometric homogeneous charge DI
engine. These engines offer higher CO2 reduction
potential than homogenous charge DI engines, ranging
from 8-14% compared to PFI and multi-point injection
[1, 2 , 3, 4], However, major impediments are cost,
complexity and the requirement of expensive lean NOx
traps in the exhaust after-treatment system. Stratified
charge DI engines are currently in production (wall-
guided variant), but there is a shift towards the spray-
guided injection variants [1, 4, 5] as they improve
injection precision and targeting towards the spark plug,
thus increasing lean combustion stability. These
systems offer improved fuel economy and reduced
emissions. Stratified charge spray-guided DI engines
are nearing production3
. The availability of low-sulphur
fuels and improved lean catalyst technology will speed
the process up.
„ Engine downsizing is seen as one of the most
important technologies to reduce fuel consumption and
CO2 emissions through improved engine efficiency,
lower weight and lower frictional losses [6,7]. It involves
a substitution of a naturally-aspirated engine by an
engine of smaller swept volume. The downsized engine
is typically turbocharged to maintain adequate levels of
torque and power output. The amount by which the
engines are downsized vary depending on the amount
of boost provided by the turbocharger and/or
supercharger. For example, automotive brochures
show that a 1.4 litre engine with the application of both
turbo and supercharging provides an average fuel
economy of 13.9 km/l in the combined cycle and
produces torque (240 Nm) equivalent to a 2.5 litre
standard gasoline engine (which has an average fuel
economy of 10 km/l) [8, 24]. Another automotive
brochure suggests that a 2.5-litre gasoline engine with the
power of 123 kW and torque of 211 Nm can be replaced
by a 2-litre turbo engine, with a 9% reduction in fuel
consumption [9]. Depending on the amount of downsizing,
various studies suggest a 2-12% CO2 reduction.
„ Variable Valve Actuation (VVA) involves controlling
the lift, duration and timing of the intake (or exhaust)
valves for air flow. There are two main variants:
variable valve timing (VVT) and variable valve lift
systems (VVL). The VVT has now become a widely
adopted technology. Manufacturers are using many
different types of VVT mechanisms (or cam phaser
systems) to control timing of the intake and exhaust
2
US EPA (2008) suggests that a turbo and downsized
stoichiometric GDI offers CO2 reductions of 5-7% relative to
stoichiometric GDI without boosting.
3
According to Drake and Haworth (2007), SG-SIDI engines
with piezoelectric pintle injectors are nearing projection.
valve. The advantages of using VVT include
improvement in full-load volumetric efficiency which
results in increased torque and reduction in pumping
losses during low-load operation, which results in
reduced fuel consumption. Depending on the design,
EPA (2008) estimates that VVT may enable 1-4%
reduction in CO2 emissions compared to fixed-valve
engines. The VVL system controls the lift height of the
valves using two different approaches: discrete VVL
and continuous VVL. Compared to VVT, VVL offers a
further reduction in pumping losses and low-load fuel
consumption. There may also be a small reduction in
valve train friction when operating at low valve lift. Most
of the fuel economy gain is achieved with VVL on the
inlet valves only. This is considered to be a cost-
effective technology when applied in addition to VVT
(cam phase control) [1]. A number of manufacturers
have implemented VVL (or VVT with VVL) into their
fleet [10, 11, 12]. Based on standard (ECE) driving
cycles, automotive brochures suggest that the VVL
system provides fuel savings of up to 10%, and
improves cold start behaviour [10]. Various studies
confirm CO2 reductions of 3-7%.
„ Cylinder deactivation allows an engine to run on
part (usually half) of its cylinders during light-load
operation. For example, a 6-cylinder (V6) engine will
run on all cylinders during acceleration (or under high
load), and switch to four or three cylinders for cruising
or low-speed drive. This technology is aimed at large
capacity engines (V6, V8 and V12 engines). Pumping
losses are significantly reduced when the engine is
operated in the “part-cylinder” mode. Several
manufacturers have recently incorporated this
application into their models. EPA (2008) and IEA
(2005) suggest that CO2 reductions associated to these
systems range from 6-8%.
„ Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) technology
enables the compression ratio of an engine to be
automatically adjusted to optimise the efficiency of the
combustion process under different load and speed
conditions. The compression ratio controls the amount
by which the fuel/air mixture is compressed in the
cylinder before it is ignited. This is one of the most
important factors that determines how efficiently the
engine can utilize the fuel energy. At low speed, a VCR
engine operates with high compression ratio in order to
maximize fuel efficiency, whilst at high speed, low
compression ratios are used. The potential benefits and
the importance of VCR technology have long been
known, but it is not commercially available yet due to its
mechanical complexity. Research done by the
European Commission Community showed that VCR
engines can achieve a reduction of fuel consumption of
up to 9%, compared to state-of-the-art turbocharged
gasoline engines with a constant compression ratio of
8.9 [13]. It also suggests that an additional fuel savings
of up to 18% can be obtained by downsizing the engine
by 40%, while keeping torque and performance
constant through high boosting. Thus, this technology
could enable an overall fuel consumption reduction of
up to 27%.
3
Please send comments to Tom.Palmer@aeat.co.uk, Nikolas.Hill@aeat.co.uk, Johannes.VonEinem@aeat.co.uk, Yvonne.Li@aeat.co.uk (Authors), and
to Giorgio.Simbolotti@enea.it and Giancarlo Tosato (gct@etsap.org), Project Coordinators
© IEA ETSAP - Technology Brief T01 – April 2010 - www.etsap.org
„ Gasoline Homogeneous Charge Compression
(HCCI) - also known as Controlled Auto-ignition (CAI) -
is an alternative engine-operating mode that does not
rely on the spark events to initiate the combustion. In
the HCCI engine, fuel and air are premixed to form a
homogeneous mixture; on compression, combustion
occurs by self-ignition at multiple sites [1, 5, 9]. HCCI
operates in a very lean fuel-air mixture or with a mixture
that is considerably diluted with exhaust gases either
re-injected (EGR) or kept in chamber (to increase the
charge temperature as well as to control excessive
rates of heat release) [1, 4, 14]. A major advantage of
HCCI is the exceptional low level of NOx emissions due
to the lower peak-temperature inside the combustion
chamber. High CO and unburned hydrocarbons
emissions can be the result of incomplete reaction in
cool wall boundary layers, but conventional three-way
catalysts are most efficient for removal. Soot emissions
are also very low or negligible due to the homogeneous
nature of the premixed charge. In terms of fuel
economy, the technology can lead to a 10%
improvement for a simulated European drive cycle,
compared to a homogeneous DI gasoline engine [6].
The major challenges of HCCI are the control of ignition
timing and the operation over a wide range of engine
speed and loads [4]. Unlike diesel engines where auto-
ignition and combustion phasing can be controlled by
injection timing, HCCI is controlled primarily by in-
cylinder temperature and temperature distribution. This
requires variable exhaust gases re-injection (EGR)
rates, as well as sophisticated variable-valve actuation
and control systems. Because HCCI engines operate
in a limited speed/load range, commercial applications
are likely to operate in a “dual-mode” between HCCI
and Spark Ignition (SI) application [1]
4
. This dual-mode
strategy has recently been demonstrated by a car
manufacturer on two concept vehicles based on
conventional, production-based models [15, 23]
5
. HCCI
implementation is thought to be about 5-10 years away
from high-volume production.
CURRENT COSTS AND COST PROJECTIONS -
Several studies provide costs of the various advanced
gasoline technologies. The costs vary depending on
the definition of cost and method and assumptions
used. A summary of the cost data can be found in
Tables 2-4. „ The US EPA study in 2008 presented
incremental compliance costs for each technology,
which account for both the direct manufacturing costs
and the indirect costs. Firstly, the piece costs for an
individual piece of hardware or system (e.g. an intake
cam phaser to provide VVT) are estimated, which is the
price paid by the manufacturer to a Tier 1 component
4
Spark Ignition (SI) application would be used at higher loads,
at idle or when engine is started cold.
5
These HCCI prototypes were built on the integration of other
advanced engine technologies which include gasoline direct-
injection and variable valve actuation technologies. They offer
up to 15% improved fuel efficiency relative to a comparable
PFI engine while only requiring conventional automotive
exhaust after-treatment. However, a sophisticated controller
using cylinder pressure sensor and other control algorithms
are required to manage the HCCI combustion process.
supplier. To these costs, an indirect cost mark-up
factor of 50% is to be added to generate the compliance
costs that are then compared to a baseline vehicle. The
technologies covered in this study (priced in dollars and
converted to euros
6
) include engine friction reduction
(€0-88), VVT (€41-146, depending on mechanisms
used), VVL (€118-883, depending on mechanisms
used), cylinder deactivation (€142, for a large car only),
Homogeneous DI (referred to as GDI-stoichiometric in
the study, €85-368), stratified DI (referred to as GDI-
lean burn in the study, €525 relative GDI-stoich), and
downsizing with turbocharging (€84-483). This EPA
study also suggests learning impact to enable lower
per-unit cost of production as soon as manufacturers
gain experience in production and improve in areas
such as simplifying machining and assembly
operations. The “learning rate” is expressed as a
percentage reduction in costs for each doubling of
production. The EPA suggests a 20% learning rate for
all newly applied technologies. „ The joint
TNO/IEEP/LAT study (2006) presents cost data in the
form of additional manufacturers’ costs compared to
2002 baseline gasoline vehicles (small, medium to
large, with 4/6 cylinder in-line and multipoint injection).
The study provides technology costs and cost ranges
for small and large cars, namely, engine friction
reduction (€40-60); DI-homogeneous charge (€125-
175); DI-stratified charge with lean burn (€320-480);
medium (20%) and strong (≥ 30%) downsizing with
turbocharging (€225-510); and VVT (€100-200).
„ The IEA Energy Technology Perspective (2008)
suggests an incremental cost for both engine (incl. VVT,
turbocharging and direct injection) and non-engine
technologies (not discussed in this paper) ranging from
€1960 to €2380 [16]. „ In 2008, EUCAR, CONCAWE
and JRC presented their price assumptions for key
components, systems and technologies used in their
economical assessment of the Tank-To-Wheel (TTW)
study. The prices provided for these components are
equivalent to delivered costs to vehicle manufacturers
and no mark up to include further costs (e.g. warranty)
is included. The study assumes a volume of more than
50,000 units per year, projected for beyond 2010. The
components (and their price assumptions) covered in
this study include friction improvement (€60),
gasoline/spark-ignition direct injection (€500),
turbocharging (€180), and 20% downsizing for
gasoline/spark-ignition (€220) [21, 22].
POTENTIAL AND BARRIERS - Major drivers for the
development and the introduction of new engine
technologies include the need to meet environmental
goals (e.g. Kyoto Protocol) and legislations. There are
several fuel economy and greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions standards for passenger cars currently being
proposed, already established or in the process of
revision around the world. The fuel economy standards
include the US Corporate Average Fuel Economy
(CAFE) programme and Japan’s Top Runner energy
efficiency programme. China, Taiwan and South Korea
have also established mandatory fuel economy
6
0.7 Euros to the Dollar throughout this paper
4
Please send comments to Tom.Palmer@aeat.co.uk, Nikolas.Hill@aeat.co.uk, Johannes.VonEinem@aeat.co.uk, Yvonne.Li@aeat.co.uk (Authors), and
to Giorgio.Simbolotti@enea.it and Giancarlo Tosato (gct@etsap.org), Project Coordinators
© IEA ETSAP - Technology Brief T01 – April 2010 - www.etsap.org
standards while Austria has called for a voluntary
industrial agreement to reduce fleet average fuel
consumption for passenger cars. The California Air
Resources Board (CARB) has issued regulations
limiting the fleet average GHG emissions (CO2, CH4,
N2O and HFCs) from passenger cars. The Canadian
government also announced it will take measures to
reduce GHG emissions, shifting from its earlier
voluntary Company Average Fuel Consumption (CAFC)
programme to mandatory regulatory programmes. In
the European Union, the Commission has proposed
new-car CO2 regulations, which require a fleet average
of 130g of CO2 per kilometre to be achieved by all cars
registered in the EU, and a long-term target of 95g/km
for the year 2020 [17].
Approximately 46.6 million new passenger cars were
sold worldwide in 2006, compared to 43.4 million in
2005 [18, 19]. Apart from the ongoing economic crisis,
not only emerging economies but also OECD countries
still show a strongly increasing car ownership rate [15].
Gasoline engines power the great majority of passenger
cars in the world, especially in countries such as the
US, Japan and China (although in Europe, new sales of
diesel cars surpassed gasoline cars in 2006).
Advanced gasoline engines are expected to remain
competitive in vehicle applications for the near future. If
technologies to improve gasoline engines can obtain a
better “cost to benefit” ratio in terms of CO2 reduction, it
will be commercially attractive to introduce them into the
new car fleet mix. Moreover, they are more technically
mature than hydrogen and electric vehicles and can be
deployed instantly using the existing infrastructure.
They can offer near-term solutions addressed to the
climate issue, with affordable costs for customers.
Market potential may vary between countries depending
on availability, prices and the level of fuel duty between
petrol, diesel and alternative fuels. A few technical
bottlenecks remain for some of the technologies
discussed such as the HCCI (CAI). Moreover, different
advanced technologies are being studied to a greater or
lesser extent by different companies. Some of these
technologies are mutually exclusive while others can be
additive (e.g. turbo-downsized GDI, GDI with VVT and
VVL). Hybrid electric technology may also benefit from
developments in advanced engines.
References and Further Information
1. EPA 2008, EPA Staff Technical Report: Cost and Effectiveness Estimates of Technologies Used to Reduce Light-duty Vehicle
Carbon Dioxide Emissions, EPA420-R-08-008, United States Environment Protection Agency, March 2008.
2. EPA 2008, A Study of Potential Effectiveness of Carbon Dioxide Reducing Vehicle Technologies, Revised Final Report, EPA420-
R-08-004a, United States Environment Protection Agency, June 2008.
3. IEA 2005, Making cars more efficient: Technology for Real Improvements on the Road, International Energy Agency and European
Conference of Ministers of Transport Joint Report, 2005.
4. TNO 2006, Review and analysis of the reduction potential and costs of technological and other measures to reduce CO2-emissions
from passenger cars, Contract nr. S12.408212, TNO/ IEEP/ LAT, October 2006.
5. Drake and Haworth 2007, Advanced gasoline engine development using optical diagnostics and numerical modelling, Proceedings
of the Combustion Institute 31 (2007) 99-124.
6. Alkidas 2007, Combustion advancements in gasoline engines, Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 2751-2761. [6]
Mahle Powertrain 2007, Special Edition Mahle Powertrain, Customer magazine.
7. Lake et al. 2003, Turbocharging Concepts for Downsized DI Gasoline Engines.
8. Volkswagen brochure, TSI. A Miracle of Performance,
http://www.volkswagen.co.nz/publish/vwasia/new_zealand/en/experience/technology/tsi_technology.html.
9. Renault http://www.renault.com/en/innovation/eco-
technologies/documents_without_moderation/pdf%20env%20gb/integrale%20env%20gb.pdf.
10. BMW’s Valvetronic http://www.bmw.com/com/en/insights/technology/technology_guide/articles/mm_valvetronic.html.
11. Honda’s VTEChttp://world.honda.com/news/2006/4060925VTEC/.
12. Nissan’s VVEL http://www.nissan-global.com/EN/TECHNOLOGY/INTRODUCTION/DETAILS/VVEL/index.html
13. EC2002, Variable Compression Ratio Technology for CO2 Reduction of Gasoline Engines in Passenger Cars, European
Commission Community Research. http://ec.europa.eu/research/growth/gcc/projects/provcr.html.
http://ec.europa.eu/research/conferences/2002/pdf/presspacks/1-1-vcr_en.pdf.
14. Carbon Trust 2003, Low Cost Solution for Gasoline Engine Controlled Auto Ignition, Project reference number 2003-5-22.
15. General Motor http://www.gm.com/experience/fuel_economy/news/2007/adv_engines/new-combustion-technology-082707.jsp
16. ETP 2008, Energy Technology Perspectives 2008, International Energy Agency.
17. ICCT 2007, Passenger Vehicle Greenhouse Gas and Fuel Economy Standards: A Global Update, International Council on Clean
Transportation (ICCT), www.theicct.org.
18. ACEA 2008, European Automotive Industry Report 07/08, 2008.
19. ACEA 2006, European Automotive Industry Report 2006, 2006.
20. Kollamthodi, S. et al., Transport technologies marginal abatement cost curve model - technology and efficiency measures, AEA
Technology, 2008.
21. DOE 2008, FY 2008 Progress Report for Advanced Combustion Engine Technologies, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
Office of Vehicle Technologies, U.S. Department of Energy, December 2008.
22. Ford EcoBoost, gasoline engines with turbocharging and direct injection technology http://www.ford.com/about-ford/news-
announcements/press-releases/press-releases-detail/pr-affordable-technology-for-today-27833#
23. General Motor’s advanced engine technologies (VVT, direct injection, cylinder deactivation, direct injection with turbocharging)
http://www.gm.com/corporate/responsibility/reports/08/400_products/4-2-1.jsp
24. Volkswagen’s TSI engines (gasoline direct injection with turbocharging and supercharging)
http://www.volkswagen.co.nz/publish/vwasia/new_zealand/en/experience/technology/tsi_technology.html
5
Please send comments to Tom.Palmer@aeat.co.uk, Nikolas.Hill@aeat.co.uk, Johannes.VonEinem@aeat.co.uk, Yvonne.Li@aeat.co.uk (Authors), and
to Giorgio.Simbolotti@enea.it and Giancarlo Tosato (gct@etsap.org), Project Coordinators
© IEA ETSAP - Technology Brief T01 – April 2010 - www.etsap.org
Table 2 – Summary Table: Key Data and Figures for Baseline and Advanced Gasoline Vehicles
Baseline Vehicles (Source [20])
Technical Performance Small Cars Medium Cars Large Cars
Energy Input Gasoline
Energy Output Kilometres
Base Energy Consumption (l/km) 0.062 0.072 0.111
Technical Lifetime, yrs 12 12 12
Environmental Impact
CO2 and other GHG emissions, g/km 143.5 166.7 255.0
Costs
Capital Cost, overnight, Euro/unit 10,279 16,643 25,505
O&M cost (fixed and variable), Euro/km 0.03 0.04 0.05
Economic Lifetime, yrs 12 12 12
Advanced Vehicles (Source [20])
Technical Performance Small Cars Medium Cars Large Cars
Energy Input Gasoline
Energy Output Kilometres
Base Energy Consumption (l/km) 0.055 0.064 0.097
Technical Lifetime, yrs 12 12 12
Environmental Impact
CO2 and other GHG emissions, g/km 126.3 146.7 224.4
Costs
Additional Capital Cost, overnight, Euro/unit 231 – 401 308 – 462 130 – 524
O&M cost (fixed and variable), Euro/km 0.03 0.04 0.05
Economic Lifetime, yrs 12 12 12
Table 3 – CO2 Emission Reductions for Advanced Gasoline Technologies
CO2 reduction (%)
EPA 2008 [1]
IEA
2005
[2]
IEA
2008
[3]
TNO/IEEP/LAT
2006 [4]
Drake
and
Haworth
2007 [5]
Small Large Small Medium Large
Reduced engine friction losses 1-3 1-3 2-4 3 4 5
DI / homogeneous charge (stoichiometric) 1-2 1-2
12-15 3-5
3 3 3 3-5
DI/Stratified charge (lean burn/complex strategies)
9-12 10-14 10 10 10
8-12
(WG); 20
(SG)
Mild downsizing with turbocharging
6-9 6-9
2-4
2-3
Medium downsizing with turbocharging 8.5 10 10
Strong downsizing with turbocharging 12 12 12
Variable Valve Timing 2-3 1-4 1.5-2.5 6-8 3 3 3
Variable valve control 4-5 3-6 5-7 7 7 7
Cylinder deactivation 6 6-8
Controlled auto-ignition (CAI) /Gasoline HCCI
dual-mode
11-14 11-14 20
Table 4 – Incremental Costs of Advanced Gasoline Technologies
EPA 2008 [Euro] [1] TNO/IEEP/LAT 2006 [Euro] [2]
Small Large Small Medium Large
Reduced engine friction losses 0-58 0-88 40 50 60
DI / homogeneous charge (stoichiometric) 85-294 143-368 125 150 175
DI / Stratified charge (lean burn / complex strategies) 610-819 668-893 320 400 480
Mild downsizing with turbocharging
Medium downsizing with turbocharging 225 300 375
Strong downsizing with turbocharging 390 450 510
Variable Valve Timing 41-62 41-146 100 150 200
Variable valve control 118-419 172-883 300 350 400
Cylinder deactivation 142
Controlled auto-ignition (CAI) /Gasoline HCCI dual-mode 270-478 416-641
Please send comments to Tom.Palmer@aeat.co.uk, Nikolas.Hill@aeat.co.uk, Johannes.VonEinem@aeat.co.uk, Yvonne.Li@aeat.co.uk (Authors), and
to Giorgio.Simbolotti@enea.it and Giancarlo Tosato (gct@etsap.org), Project Coordinators
© IEA ETSAP - Technology Brief T01 – April 2010 - www.etsap.org
Advanced Automotive Gasoline Engines
HIGHLIGHTS
„ PROCESS AND TECHNOLOGY STATUS – Internal combustion engine technology is constantly evolving. A
number of improvements in gasoline-powered vehicles have been made to optimize combustion, improve fuel economy
and reduce emissions. Examples of advanced gasoline technologies include reduced engine friction losses, direct
gasoline injection, engine downsizing with turbocharger, variable valve actuation (VVA) and homogeneous
charge compression ignition (HCCI). The majority of these technologies are already commercially available or close
to being on the market. Although HCCI technology is still under development for both gasoline and diesel engines, it
promises improvement in fuel economy and exceptionally low NOx and soot emissions.
„ PERFORMANCE AND COSTS – A study by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2008) presents the
potential CO2 reduction and incremental compliance costs for a number of advanced gasoline technologies as compared
to conventional port-fuelled injection vehicles. The costs account for both direct manufacturing costs and indirect costs.
The technologies covered - and related CO2 reduction and incremental compliance costs in 2006 US dollars – include a)
engine friction reduction (1-3%, $0-126); b) homogeneous direct injection (1-2% $122-525); c) stratified direct injection
(9-14%, $872-1275); d) downsizing with turbocharging (6-9%, $120-690); e) variable valve timing (1-4%, $59-209); f)
variable valve control (3-6%, $169-1262); and g) cylinder deactivation (6%, $203).
„ POTENTIAL AND BARRIERS – Car ownership is expected to grow in many OECD countries as well as in
emerging economies. Demanding environmental concerns and fuel economy standards, as well as increasing fuel
prices, are the major drivers for advancement in engine technologies. The IEA study Energy Technology Perspectives
(IEA, 2008) suggests that improving the fuel economy of light-duty vehicles (car, small van and sport utility vehicles)
would be one of the most important and cost-effective measures to help reduce CO2 emissions in the transport sector.
Given the maturity of some advanced gasoline technologies, and the near-term and cost-effective solutions they can
offer to energy and emissions concerns, there is neither technical-economic nor infrastructure barrier for deployment,
although some technical bottlenecks have to be solved for technologies such as the HCCI.
________________________________________________________________________________
TECHNOLOGY STATUS AND PERFORMANCE -
Advanced gasoline technologies include a variety of
new components and systems aimed at optimizing
combustion and thereby improving the fuel economy
and reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases and
other pollutants. Major innovations are listed in Table 1.
„ Reduced engine friction technologies include
systems, components and materials that minimize the
friction between moving metal parts in the engine.
These technologies are available in a significant
number of engine designs [1]. Several friction reduction
opportunities have been identified in piston surfaces
and rings, crankshaft design, improved material
coatings and roller cam followers. Various studies
suggest that the CO2 reduction potential for engine
friction reduction technologies may range from 1-5%
[1,2,3].
„ In the gasoline direct injection (DI) engines, fuel is
injected at high pressure directly into the combustion
chamber rather than into air intake manifolds. The key
advantage is the improvement in fuel efficiency. The
technology was developed more than 10 years ago and
a number of different manufacturers are now using
these types of engines in commercially available
vehicles. The use of sulphur-free fuels is necessary to
obtain the maximum benefit from this technology.
Depending on the ignition and combustion mode and on
the formation process of the mixture, DI engines can be
categorized in homogeneous charge, and stratified
charge, spark ignition. In the homogeneous charge
(stoichiometric) DI engines, a high-pressure fuel
injector sprays fuel directly into the combustion
chamber early enough in the cycle to promote
homogeneous fuel-air mixing. These engines have the
potential to reduce hydrocarbon emissions, increase
power and improve fuel economy, while taking
advantage of the highly-effective catalytic after-
treatment systems, the same as the port fuel injection
(PFI) engines. Various studies suggest a CO2 emission
reduction potential ranging from 1-5% [1,3,4] in
comparison with PFI and multi-point injection. These
engines are often supplemented with turbo-charging,
supercharging1
, or both2
. They are available from
1
Turbochargers and superchargers are air compressors that
allow more air into an engine; turbochargers are powered by
exhaust gases, while superchargers run directly on engine
power.
Table 1 – Advanced Technologies for Gasoline Engines
Technology Status
Reduced Engine Friction Losses Production
Direct Gasoline Injection (incl.
homogeneous/ stratified charge)
Production
Downsizing with Turbocharging Production
Variable Valve Actuation Production
Cylinder Deactivation Production
Variable Compression Ratio Prototype
Homogeneous charge compression ignition
(HCCI)
Prototype
2
Please send comments to Tom.Palmer@aeat.co.uk, Nikolas.Hill@aeat.co.uk, Johannes.VonEinem@aeat.co.uk, Yvonne.Li@aeat.co.uk (Authors), and
to Giorgio.Simbolotti@enea.it and Giancarlo Tosato (gct@etsap.org), Project Coordinators
© IEA ETSAP - Technology Brief T01 – April 2010 - www.etsap.org
several automobile companies worldwide, and more
deployment is expected in the near future. Stratified
charge DI engines involve concentrating fuel spraying
close to the spark plug rather than throughout the whole
of the combustion chamber. The aim is to produce an
overall lean stratified mixture. These engines operate
in at least two modes, depending on load and speed.
During low-load and low-speed operation, the engine
runs with a stratified charge and with lean mixtures. At
high-load and high-speed operation, the engine
operates as a stoichiometric homogeneous charge DI
engine. These engines offer higher CO2 reduction
potential than homogenous charge DI engines, ranging
from 8-14% compared to PFI and multi-point injection
[1, 2 , 3, 4], However, major impediments are cost,
complexity and the requirement of expensive lean NOx
traps in the exhaust after-treatment system. Stratified
charge DI engines are currently in production (wall-
guided variant), but there is a shift towards the spray-
guided injection variants [1, 4, 5] as they improve
injection precision and targeting towards the spark plug,
thus increasing lean combustion stability. These
systems offer improved fuel economy and reduced
emissions. Stratified charge spray-guided DI engines
are nearing production3
. The availability of low-sulphur
fuels and improved lean catalyst technology will speed
the process up.
„ Engine downsizing is seen as one of the most
important technologies to reduce fuel consumption and
CO2 emissions through improved engine efficiency,
lower weight and lower frictional losses [6,7]. It involves
a substitution of a naturally-aspirated engine by an
engine of smaller swept volume. The downsized engine
is typically turbocharged to maintain adequate levels of
torque and power output. The amount by which the
engines are downsized vary depending on the amount
of boost provided by the turbocharger and/or
supercharger. For example, automotive brochures
show that a 1.4 litre engine with the application of both
turbo and supercharging provides an average fuel
economy of 13.9 km/l in the combined cycle and
produces torque (240 Nm) equivalent to a 2.5 litre
standard gasoline engine (which has an average fuel
economy of 10 km/l) [8, 24]. Another automotive
brochure suggests that a 2.5-litre gasoline engine with the
power of 123 kW and torque of 211 Nm can be replaced
by a 2-litre turbo engine, with a 9% reduction in fuel
consumption [9]. Depending on the amount of downsizing,
various studies suggest a 2-12% CO2 reduction.
„ Variable Valve Actuation (VVA) involves controlling
the lift, duration and timing of the intake (or exhaust)
valves for air flow. There are two main variants:
variable valve timing (VVT) and variable valve lift
systems (VVL). The VVT has now become a widely
adopted technology. Manufacturers are using many
different types of VVT mechanisms (or cam phaser
systems) to control timing of the intake and exhaust
2
US EPA (2008) suggests that a turbo and downsized
stoichiometric GDI offers CO2 reductions of 5-7% relative to
stoichiometric GDI without boosting.
3
According to Drake and Haworth (2007), SG-SIDI engines
with piezoelectric pintle injectors are nearing projection.
valve. The advantages of using VVT include
improvement in full-load volumetric efficiency which
results in increased torque and reduction in pumping
losses during low-load operation, which results in
reduced fuel consumption. Depending on the design,
EPA (2008) estimates that VVT may enable 1-4%
reduction in CO2 emissions compared to fixed-valve
engines. The VVL system controls the lift height of the
valves using two different approaches: discrete VVL
and continuous VVL. Compared to VVT, VVL offers a
further reduction in pumping losses and low-load fuel
consumption. There may also be a small reduction in
valve train friction when operating at low valve lift. Most
of the fuel economy gain is achieved with VVL on the
inlet valves only. This is considered to be a cost-
effective technology when applied in addition to VVT
(cam phase control) [1]. A number of manufacturers
have implemented VVL (or VVT with VVL) into their
fleet [10, 11, 12]. Based on standard (ECE) driving
cycles, automotive brochures suggest that the VVL
system provides fuel savings of up to 10%, and
improves cold start behaviour [10]. Various studies
confirm CO2 reductions of 3-7%.
„ Cylinder deactivation allows an engine to run on
part (usually half) of its cylinders during light-load
operation. For example, a 6-cylinder (V6) engine will
run on all cylinders during acceleration (or under high
load), and switch to four or three cylinders for cruising
or low-speed drive. This technology is aimed at large
capacity engines (V6, V8 and V12 engines). Pumping
losses are significantly reduced when the engine is
operated in the “part-cylinder” mode. Several
manufacturers have recently incorporated this
application into their models. EPA (2008) and IEA
(2005) suggest that CO2 reductions associated to these
systems range from 6-8%.
„ Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) technology
enables the compression ratio of an engine to be
automatically adjusted to optimise the efficiency of the
combustion process under different load and speed
conditions. The compression ratio controls the amount
by which the fuel/air mixture is compressed in the
cylinder before it is ignited. This is one of the most
important factors that determines how efficiently the
engine can utilize the fuel energy. At low speed, a VCR
engine operates with high compression ratio in order to
maximize fuel efficiency, whilst at high speed, low
compression ratios are used. The potential benefits and
the importance of VCR technology have long been
known, but it is not commercially available yet due to its
mechanical complexity. Research done by the
European Commission Community showed that VCR
engines can achieve a reduction of fuel consumption of
up to 9%, compared to state-of-the-art turbocharged
gasoline engines with a constant compression ratio of
8.9 [13]. It also suggests that an additional fuel savings
of up to 18% can be obtained by downsizing the engine
by 40%, while keeping torque and performance
constant through high boosting. Thus, this technology
could enable an overall fuel consumption reduction of
up to 27%.
3
Please send comments to Tom.Palmer@aeat.co.uk, Nikolas.Hill@aeat.co.uk, Johannes.VonEinem@aeat.co.uk, Yvonne.Li@aeat.co.uk (Authors), and
to Giorgio.Simbolotti@enea.it and Giancarlo Tosato (gct@etsap.org), Project Coordinators
© IEA ETSAP - Technology Brief T01 – April 2010 - www.etsap.org
„ Gasoline Homogeneous Charge Compression
(HCCI) - also known as Controlled Auto-ignition (CAI) -
is an alternative engine-operating mode that does not
rely on the spark events to initiate the combustion. In
the HCCI engine, fuel and air are premixed to form a
homogeneous mixture; on compression, combustion
occurs by self-ignition at multiple sites [1, 5, 9]. HCCI
operates in a very lean fuel-air mixture or with a mixture
that is considerably diluted with exhaust gases either
re-injected (EGR) or kept in chamber (to increase the
charge temperature as well as to control excessive
rates of heat release) [1, 4, 14]. A major advantage of
HCCI is the exceptional low level of NOx emissions due
to the lower peak-temperature inside the combustion
chamber. High CO and unburned hydrocarbons
emissions can be the result of incomplete reaction in
cool wall boundary layers, but conventional three-way
catalysts are most efficient for removal. Soot emissions
are also very low or negligible due to the homogeneous
nature of the premixed charge. In terms of fuel
economy, the technology can lead to a 10%
improvement for a simulated European drive cycle,
compared to a homogeneous DI gasoline engine [6].
The major challenges of HCCI are the control of ignition
timing and the operation over a wide range of engine
speed and loads [4]. Unlike diesel engines where auto-
ignition and combustion phasing can be controlled by
injection timing, HCCI is controlled primarily by in-
cylinder temperature and temperature distribution. This
requires variable exhaust gases re-injection (EGR)
rates, as well as sophisticated variable-valve actuation
and control systems. Because HCCI engines operate
in a limited speed/load range, commercial applications
are likely to operate in a “dual-mode” between HCCI
and Spark Ignition (SI) application [1]
4
. This dual-mode
strategy has recently been demonstrated by a car
manufacturer on two concept vehicles based on
conventional, production-based models [15, 23]
5
. HCCI
implementation is thought to be about 5-10 years away
from high-volume production.
CURRENT COSTS AND COST PROJECTIONS -
Several studies provide costs of the various advanced
gasoline technologies. The costs vary depending on
the definition of cost and method and assumptions
used. A summary of the cost data can be found in
Tables 2-4. „ The US EPA study in 2008 presented
incremental compliance costs for each technology,
which account for both the direct manufacturing costs
and the indirect costs. Firstly, the piece costs for an
individual piece of hardware or system (e.g. an intake
cam phaser to provide VVT) are estimated, which is the
price paid by the manufacturer to a Tier 1 component
4
Spark Ignition (SI) application would be used at higher loads,
at idle or when engine is started cold.
5
These HCCI prototypes were built on the integration of other
advanced engine technologies which include gasoline direct-
injection and variable valve actuation technologies. They offer
up to 15% improved fuel efficiency relative to a comparable
PFI engine while only requiring conventional automotive
exhaust after-treatment. However, a sophisticated controller
using cylinder pressure sensor and other control algorithms
are required to manage the HCCI combustion process.
supplier. To these costs, an indirect cost mark-up
factor of 50% is to be added to generate the compliance
costs that are then compared to a baseline vehicle. The
technologies covered in this study (priced in dollars and
converted to euros
6
) include engine friction reduction
(€0-88), VVT (€41-146, depending on mechanisms
used), VVL (€118-883, depending on mechanisms
used), cylinder deactivation (€142, for a large car only),
Homogeneous DI (referred to as GDI-stoichiometric in
the study, €85-368), stratified DI (referred to as GDI-
lean burn in the study, €525 relative GDI-stoich), and
downsizing with turbocharging (€84-483). This EPA
study also suggests learning impact to enable lower
per-unit cost of production as soon as manufacturers
gain experience in production and improve in areas
such as simplifying machining and assembly
operations. The “learning rate” is expressed as a
percentage reduction in costs for each doubling of
production. The EPA suggests a 20% learning rate for
all newly applied technologies. „ The joint
TNO/IEEP/LAT study (2006) presents cost data in the
form of additional manufacturers’ costs compared to
2002 baseline gasoline vehicles (small, medium to
large, with 4/6 cylinder in-line and multipoint injection).
The study provides technology costs and cost ranges
for small and large cars, namely, engine friction
reduction (€40-60); DI-homogeneous charge (€125-
175); DI-stratified charge with lean burn (€320-480);
medium (20%) and strong (≥ 30%) downsizing with
turbocharging (€225-510); and VVT (€100-200).
„ The IEA Energy Technology Perspective (2008)
suggests an incremental cost for both engine (incl. VVT,
turbocharging and direct injection) and non-engine
technologies (not discussed in this paper) ranging from
€1960 to €2380 [16]. „ In 2008, EUCAR, CONCAWE
and JRC presented their price assumptions for key
components, systems and technologies used in their
economical assessment of the Tank-To-Wheel (TTW)
study. The prices provided for these components are
equivalent to delivered costs to vehicle manufacturers
and no mark up to include further costs (e.g. warranty)
is included. The study assumes a volume of more than
50,000 units per year, projected for beyond 2010. The
components (and their price assumptions) covered in
this study include friction improvement (€60),
gasoline/spark-ignition direct injection (€500),
turbocharging (€180), and 20% downsizing for
gasoline/spark-ignition (€220) [21, 22].
POTENTIAL AND BARRIERS - Major drivers for the
development and the introduction of new engine
technologies include the need to meet environmental
goals (e.g. Kyoto Protocol) and legislations. There are
several fuel economy and greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions standards for passenger cars currently being
proposed, already established or in the process of
revision around the world. The fuel economy standards
include the US Corporate Average Fuel Economy
(CAFE) programme and Japan’s Top Runner energy
efficiency programme. China, Taiwan and South Korea
have also established mandatory fuel economy
6
0.7 Euros to the Dollar throughout this paper
4
Please send comments to Tom.Palmer@aeat.co.uk, Nikolas.Hill@aeat.co.uk, Johannes.VonEinem@aeat.co.uk, Yvonne.Li@aeat.co.uk (Authors), and
to Giorgio.Simbolotti@enea.it and Giancarlo Tosato (gct@etsap.org), Project Coordinators
© IEA ETSAP - Technology Brief T01 – April 2010 - www.etsap.org
standards while Austria has called for a voluntary
industrial agreement to reduce fleet average fuel
consumption for passenger cars. The California Air
Resources Board (CARB) has issued regulations
limiting the fleet average GHG emissions (CO2, CH4,
N2O and HFCs) from passenger cars. The Canadian
government also announced it will take measures to
reduce GHG emissions, shifting from its earlier
voluntary Company Average Fuel Consumption (CAFC)
programme to mandatory regulatory programmes. In
the European Union, the Commission has proposed
new-car CO2 regulations, which require a fleet average
of 130g of CO2 per kilometre to be achieved by all cars
registered in the EU, and a long-term target of 95g/km
for the year 2020 [17].
Approximately 46.6 million new passenger cars were
sold worldwide in 2006, compared to 43.4 million in
2005 [18, 19]. Apart from the ongoing economic crisis,
not only emerging economies but also OECD countries
still show a strongly increasing car ownership rate [15].
Gasoline engines power the great majority of passenger
cars in the world, especially in countries such as the
US, Japan and China (although in Europe, new sales of
diesel cars surpassed gasoline cars in 2006).
Advanced gasoline engines are expected to remain
competitive in vehicle applications for the near future. If
technologies to improve gasoline engines can obtain a
better “cost to benefit” ratio in terms of CO2 reduction, it
will be commercially attractive to introduce them into the
new car fleet mix. Moreover, they are more technically
mature than hydrogen and electric vehicles and can be
deployed instantly using the existing infrastructure.
They can offer near-term solutions addressed to the
climate issue, with affordable costs for customers.
Market potential may vary between countries depending
on availability, prices and the level of fuel duty between
petrol, diesel and alternative fuels. A few technical
bottlenecks remain for some of the technologies
discussed such as the HCCI (CAI). Moreover, different
advanced technologies are being studied to a greater or
lesser extent by different companies. Some of these
technologies are mutually exclusive while others can be
additive (e.g. turbo-downsized GDI, GDI with VVT and
VVL). Hybrid electric technology may also benefit from
developments in advanced engines.
References and Further Information
1. EPA 2008, EPA Staff Technical Report: Cost and Effectiveness Estimates of Technologies Used to Reduce Light-duty Vehicle
Carbon Dioxide Emissions, EPA420-R-08-008, United States Environment Protection Agency, March 2008.
2. EPA 2008, A Study of Potential Effectiveness of Carbon Dioxide Reducing Vehicle Technologies, Revised Final Report, EPA420-
R-08-004a, United States Environment Protection Agency, June 2008.
3. IEA 2005, Making cars more efficient: Technology for Real Improvements on the Road, International Energy Agency and European
Conference of Ministers of Transport Joint Report, 2005.
4. TNO 2006, Review and analysis of the reduction potential and costs of technological and other measures to reduce CO2-emissions
from passenger cars, Contract nr. S12.408212, TNO/ IEEP/ LAT, October 2006.
5. Drake and Haworth 2007, Advanced gasoline engine development using optical diagnostics and numerical modelling, Proceedings
of the Combustion Institute 31 (2007) 99-124.
6. Alkidas 2007, Combustion advancements in gasoline engines, Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 2751-2761. [6]
Mahle Powertrain 2007, Special Edition Mahle Powertrain, Customer magazine.
7. Lake et al. 2003, Turbocharging Concepts for Downsized DI Gasoline Engines.
8. Volkswagen brochure, TSI. A Miracle of Performance,
http://www.volkswagen.co.nz/publish/vwasia/new_zealand/en/experience/technology/tsi_technology.html.
9. Renault http://www.renault.com/en/innovation/eco-
technologies/documents_without_moderation/pdf%20env%20gb/integrale%20env%20gb.pdf.
10. BMW’s Valvetronic http://www.bmw.com/com/en/insights/technology/technology_guide/articles/mm_valvetronic.html.
11. Honda’s VTEChttp://world.honda.com/news/2006/4060925VTEC/.
12. Nissan’s VVEL http://www.nissan-global.com/EN/TECHNOLOGY/INTRODUCTION/DETAILS/VVEL/index.html
13. EC2002, Variable Compression Ratio Technology for CO2 Reduction of Gasoline Engines in Passenger Cars, European
Commission Community Research. http://ec.europa.eu/research/growth/gcc/projects/provcr.html.
http://ec.europa.eu/research/conferences/2002/pdf/presspacks/1-1-vcr_en.pdf.
14. Carbon Trust 2003, Low Cost Solution for Gasoline Engine Controlled Auto Ignition, Project reference number 2003-5-22.
15. General Motor http://www.gm.com/experience/fuel_economy/news/2007/adv_engines/new-combustion-technology-082707.jsp
16. ETP 2008, Energy Technology Perspectives 2008, International Energy Agency.
17. ICCT 2007, Passenger Vehicle Greenhouse Gas and Fuel Economy Standards: A Global Update, International Council on Clean
Transportation (ICCT), www.theicct.org.
18. ACEA 2008, European Automotive Industry Report 07/08, 2008.
19. ACEA 2006, European Automotive Industry Report 2006, 2006.
20. Kollamthodi, S. et al., Transport technologies marginal abatement cost curve model - technology and efficiency measures, AEA
Technology, 2008.
21. DOE 2008, FY 2008 Progress Report for Advanced Combustion Engine Technologies, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
Office of Vehicle Technologies, U.S. Department of Energy, December 2008.
22. Ford EcoBoost, gasoline engines with turbocharging and direct injection technology http://www.ford.com/about-ford/news-
announcements/press-releases/press-releases-detail/pr-affordable-technology-for-today-27833#
23. General Motor’s advanced engine technologies (VVT, direct injection, cylinder deactivation, direct injection with turbocharging)
http://www.gm.com/corporate/responsibility/reports/08/400_products/4-2-1.jsp
24. Volkswagen’s TSI engines (gasoline direct injection with turbocharging and supercharging)
http://www.volkswagen.co.nz/publish/vwasia/new_zealand/en/experience/technology/tsi_technology.html
5
Please send comments to Tom.Palmer@aeat.co.uk, Nikolas.Hill@aeat.co.uk, Johannes.VonEinem@aeat.co.uk, Yvonne.Li@aeat.co.uk (Authors), and
to Giorgio.Simbolotti@enea.it and Giancarlo Tosato (gct@etsap.org), Project Coordinators
© IEA ETSAP - Technology Brief T01 – April 2010 - www.etsap.org
Table 2 – Summary Table: Key Data and Figures for Baseline and Advanced Gasoline Vehicles
Baseline Vehicles (Source [20])
Technical Performance Small Cars Medium Cars Large Cars
Energy Input Gasoline
Energy Output Kilometres
Base Energy Consumption (l/km) 0.062 0.072 0.111
Technical Lifetime, yrs 12 12 12
Environmental Impact
CO2 and other GHG emissions, g/km 143.5 166.7 255.0
Costs
Capital Cost, overnight, Euro/unit 10,279 16,643 25,505
O&M cost (fixed and variable), Euro/km 0.03 0.04 0.05
Economic Lifetime, yrs 12 12 12
Advanced Vehicles (Source [20])
Technical Performance Small Cars Medium Cars Large Cars
Energy Input Gasoline
Energy Output Kilometres
Base Energy Consumption (l/km) 0.055 0.064 0.097
Technical Lifetime, yrs 12 12 12
Environmental Impact
CO2 and other GHG emissions, g/km 126.3 146.7 224.4
Costs
Additional Capital Cost, overnight, Euro/unit 231 – 401 308 – 462 130 – 524
O&M cost (fixed and variable), Euro/km 0.03 0.04 0.05
Economic Lifetime, yrs 12 12 12
Table 3 – CO2 Emission Reductions for Advanced Gasoline Technologies
CO2 reduction (%)
EPA 2008 [1]
IEA
2005
[2]
IEA
2008
[3]
TNO/IEEP/LAT
2006 [4]
Drake
and
Haworth
2007 [5]
Small Large Small Medium Large
Reduced engine friction losses 1-3 1-3 2-4 3 4 5
DI / homogeneous charge (stoichiometric) 1-2 1-2
12-15 3-5
3 3 3 3-5
DI/Stratified charge (lean burn/complex strategies)
9-12 10-14 10 10 10
8-12
(WG); 20
(SG)
Mild downsizing with turbocharging
6-9 6-9
2-4
2-3
Medium downsizing with turbocharging 8.5 10 10
Strong downsizing with turbocharging 12 12 12
Variable Valve Timing 2-3 1-4 1.5-2.5 6-8 3 3 3
Variable valve control 4-5 3-6 5-7 7 7 7
Cylinder deactivation 6 6-8
Controlled auto-ignition (CAI) /Gasoline HCCI
dual-mode
11-14 11-14 20
Table 4 – Incremental Costs of Advanced Gasoline Technologies
EPA 2008 [Euro] [1] TNO/IEEP/LAT 2006 [Euro] [2]
Small Large Small Medium Large
Reduced engine friction losses 0-58 0-88 40 50 60
DI / homogeneous charge (stoichiometric) 85-294 143-368 125 150 175
DI / Stratified charge (lean burn / complex strategies) 610-819 668-893 320 400 480
Mild downsizing with turbocharging
Medium downsizing with turbocharging 225 300 375
Strong downsizing with turbocharging 390 450 510
Variable Valve Timing 41-62 41-146 100 150 200
Variable valve control 118-419 172-883 300 350 400
Cylinder deactivation 142
Controlled auto-ignition (CAI) /Gasoline HCCI dual-mode 270-478 416-641
Wednesday, December 1, 2010
How crystal skulls were involved or linked with MAYANS;-
MAYAN CRYSTAL SKULLS
Ancient Mayan culture still flourishes in Guatemala
According to Mayan Legend, there will come a time when 13 ancient crystal skulls are reunited that can affect the Earth and the course of humanity. The story of Creation according to Mayan culture plays an integral part in daily Mayan living, so it is no surprise that the day the calendar ends plays an equally important role. This date is calculated as December 21, 2012 and there are many interpretations of 2012 Mayan prophecies.
Mayan culture specialist and Guatemalan crystal skull caretaker Lydia Trauttenberg travels the world sharing with people the importance of the Mayan heritage and what message it offers us for today. Lydia Trauttenberg believes, along with many Mayan elders, that crystal skulls may play a vital role in the reawakening of humanity.
Guatemala may contain some of the most authentically preserved Mayan sites, including numerous Mayan pyramids and temples. While other Mayan pyramids in Mexico may be more popular with tourists, the Mayan pyramids like Tikal can act as a portal to take you back in time.
Many people wonder what the ending of the Mayan calendar means for the Earth and what the year 2012 has in store for humanity. Psychic advice columnist Amazing Grace summarizes it as follows:
"The year 2012 marks the birth of a Golden Age, and a great transformation for consciousness on Earth. The transformation process always involves death and rebirth: the old must die so that the new may be born. The Mayan calendar, which began five thousand years ago, comes to an end on December 21, 2012, which is the Winter Solstice. This does not mark the end of the world, as some might fear, but perhaps the end of the world as we know it. The year 2012 marks the ushering in of a new dawn, a new era, and a new consciousness for many on Earth."
More on 2012 Mayan Predictions - End of World - 2012 Doomsday?
Click Here to Get Your Own Mayan style Crystal Skull.
See some an authentic Mayan Crystal Skull
Quartz crystals involved in the prediction of 21/12/2012
CRYSTAL SKULLS HISTORY
Key Moments in crystal skulls History
in the last 300 years
in the last 300 years
The history of crystal skulls remains somewhat of a mystery, but new information keeps coming to light. Crystal Skull Explorer Joshua Shapiro provides the following crystal skull history timeline as recorded in his 2004-5 Crystal Skull Explorers ebook (This crystal skull history willl be updated in the new printed edition in 2008)
18th Century
Early 1700’s : A Monk near Luv, Russia, while taking his daily walk notices a large rose quartz skull sticking out of a mound. Contained within this mound are a number of artifacts that are linked to the ancient Scythians, a people who lived in Russia over 1000 years ago. (Author’s Note: This is one of the skulls that is in the hands of Ms. Joky van Dieten, called the “Luv” skull).
Late 1700’s: A blind craftsman works with a local Shaman in the Amazon to fashion a human-size crystal skull from a large block of quartz. It is perceived that some spiritual entity of unknown origin is present within this skull. (Author’s Note: this skull becomes known “Windsong”, the caretaker is Floyd Petri).
19th Century
1840’s: The Redo family acquires a small crystal skull that includes a Christian Cross made from Gold and Quartz. This Cross is inserted into a circular opening at the top of the skull. The Crystal Cross shows a date of 1571 that is engraved upon it. The family received this skull either through a local Church or it was purchased.
1860’s-1880’s: Eugéne Boban works in Mexico (1862-1867) during the French Occupation and is appointed as the French Scientific Commission underneath Emperor Maximillan. It is suspected that at this time he begins to acquire some crystal skulls either found in various Mesoamerican ruins or has contacts with local skilled carvers. It is believed that the two crystal skulls that became known as the Paris and British Museum Crystal Skulls (in the Musèe de l’homme located in Paris and the British Museum in London) were acquired by Boban and were eventually sold to various individuals later during this period.
1876-1910: It is reported that President Porfirio Diaz of Mexico has a collection of crystal skulls on his desk. Two of the skulls that are purportedly a part of his collection are claimed to be an amethyst crystal skull (later to be known as ”Ami”) and possibly a large hollow Crystal Skull that was later sent to the Smithsonian Institute in Washington D.C. in 1995.
1878: Alphonse Pinart donates a clear crystal skull to Musèe de l’homme (Trocadero Museum) in Paris. He reports that he purchased this skull through Eugéne Boban.
1881: Inside of Boban’s catalogue of goods for sale for this year, he lists a human-size crystal skull (it is suspected that this is the British Museum Crystal Skull).
1886: A Mr. Ellis is reported in a New York City newspaper to have bought a large crystal skull from Boban. (Again suspected to be the British Museum Crystal Skull)
1890: In a book published by George Frederick Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones , he mentions both the Paris and British Museum Crystal Skulls. It is the first time a crystal skull is seriously discussed in a published book. This book states that a Mr. George Sission of New York City is in possession of a human size crystal skull (is this the British Museum Skull?).
1897-1898: Tiffany & Co., a New York based jeweler, sells a large crystal skull to the British Museum (London) for £120, who places it on display in January of 1898.
20th – 21st Century
1906: While a Mayan family is digging on their property (somewhere in Guatemala), a shovel strikes a hard object in the ground. It turns out that they have uncovered a human-sized crystal skull that is made from smoky quartz which is slightly different than our own human skull. (Author’s Note: This skull becomes known later as “ET” after it is procured by Ms. van Dieten.)
1910: As various local priests are assisting a team of archaeologists in the Mayan site of Copan, one of them uncovers a clear quartz crystal skull and hides this skull from the head of this team. This skull is then used to cure a plague for a local Mayan village.
(Author’s Note: This information was given by a Mexican Priest named Francisco Reyes who was responsible for bringing to the U.S. both this crystal skull {which becomes known later as the “Mayan Crystal Skull” during three months of research conducted by crystal skull researcher, F. R. ’Nick’ Nocerino} and “Ami”, the amethyst crystal skull.)
1910: The Mexican Revolution removes President Diaz, it is reported that “Ami”, the amethyst skull becomes the property of the “Lascurian” family in Mexico.
1923-1927: During the expedition led by British explorer, F. A. Mitchell-Hedges, to the Mayan ruins called Lubaantún (“City of Fallen Stones”) in Belize, his adopted daughter Anna discovers a hidden chamber inside of a pyramid structure where a clear quartz skull is discovered on January 1 st, 1924. (Author’s Note: This crystal skull is later called the “Mitchell-Hedges Crystal Skull” in honor of the leader of this expedition.)
1924-1926: A large 18 lb. (8.17 kg) crystal skull is found in a Mayan tomb in Guatemala and is safeguarded by the local people. (Author’s Note: This crystal skull later resurfaces with a Tibetan trained red hat Lama and becomes known as “MAX”.)
1936: In July, published in MAN, a monthly publication of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, contains an article comparing the form and appearance of the “Burney” Crystal Skull (Author’s Note: This is the Mitchell-Hedges Skull but is being held as collateral by Sydney Burney, a lawyer and antiquities collector) to the “British Museum Crystal Skull”. Contributors to this article are Dr. G.M. Morant (a well known anthropologist) and two officers from the British Museum, Adrian Digby and H. J. Braunholtz.
1942: Jose Iniquez, age 17, discovers two crystal skulls in a Mayan ruin during a field trip from his class. His teacher lets him keep the small clear quartz skull.
1943-1944: Mr. Burney puts the “Burney’s Skull” up for auction at Sotheby’s in London. No one meets his price. F. A. Mitchell-Hedges buys the skull in the early part of 1944 for £400.
1944: The Magazine, “The Shadow” has an image of a Crystal Skull on the cover and an article entitled: “The Mystery of the Crystal Skull”.
1944-1945: Establishment of the Crystal Skull Society International in the states of New York and California by F. R. ‘Nick’ Nocerino. This is the first research society to be formed to specifically investigate the subject of the crystal skulls.
1954: 1 st Edition of F. A. Mitchell-Hedges autobiography, Danger My Ally is published In England.
1959: F. A. Mitchell-Hedges passes on and his daughter, Anna Mitchell-Hedges inherits the crystal skull. (Author’s Note: It is said Mr. Mitchell-Hedges asked for the crystal skull to be buried with him but Anna chose not to do so.)
1964-1970: Frank and Mabel Dorland (California), art conservators, meet Anna Mitchell-Hedges in New York City (1964). Ms. Mitchell-Hedges decides to give the crystal skull to Mr. Dorland for research. Frank Dorland conducts various tests in this six-year period with the crystal skull which are later reported in various books. He keeps the skull in his home and in a bank vault. He works with a number of different psychics to collect more information about the skull and is visited by numerous people that wish to experience this crystal skull, some of whom are very famous.
1970: Frank Dorland and author/journalist Richard Garvin bring the Mitchell-Hedges Crystal Skull to Hewlett Packard in California to allow scientists to do various experiments upon this crystal skull.
1971: In the February issue of “Measure”, Hewlett Packard’s company-wide newsletter, appears a report of the research conducted upon the Mitchell-Hedges Crystal Skull.
Early 1970s(?): A Red Hat Lama, Norbu Chen, receives a large crystal skull (“MAX”) as a gift from a Mayan Shaman in Mexico. Later, he works with this crystal skull in tandem with other Tibetan Monks, in a healing center near Houston, Texas for helping people who have a serious health problem or illness.
1972-1973: The Mitchell-Hedges Crystal Skull is on display at the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. This museum also has on display other artifacts that were discovered by the Mitchell-Hedges expedition to Lubaantún.
1973: Publication of the book, The Crystal Skull by Richard Garvin. This book primarily reports about the Mitchell-Hedges crystal skull and the work and research performed by Frank Dorland. This is the first official book published that exclusively is devoted to the subject of the crystal skulls.
mid 1970’s: Frank Dorland begins to offer public lectures showing models of the Mitchell-Hedges Skull that he used during his personal research. There are a number of TV shows that discuss the Mitchell-Hedges Skull featuring Mr. Dorland (possibly this interest was generated through the publication of the Richard Garvin’s book).
1979: Francisco Reyes, the Mayan Priest, purchases “Ami”, the amethyst crystal skull from the “Lascurian” Family in Mexico.
1979: Hewlett Packard, located in California, conducts research with “Ami”, the amethyst crystal skull and the “Mayan Crystal Skull”. The skulls are brought there by John Zamora, the agent for Mr. Reyes, who has possession of both skulls at this time.
1980: John Zamora receives a loan from purportedly a lawyer in Texas and the “Mayan Crystal Skull” is used as collateral against this loan. The loan is never repaid and Mr. Reyes forfeits ownership of this crystal skull.
1980 : First public crystal skull lecture given by F. R. Nick Nocerino of the Crystal Skull Society International in California (USA).
1980 : The crystal skull known as “MAX” is left to Carl and JoAnn Parks of Houston, Texas at the passing of Norbu Chen.
1983: A group of nine businessmen (including Al Ramirez and Stan Chan) give to the agent John Zamora a sizeable loan and receive “Ami”, the amethyst crystal skull as collateral. The loan is not repaid within the agreed timeframe so this group takes ownership of the crystal skull in 1985.
1985: The publication of the book, the Skull Speaks through the Anna Mitchell-Hedges Research and Exploration Association. This book is information received by psychic Carole Wilson while she is in a trance state in the presence of the Mitchell-Hedges Skull.
mid-1980’s: First major wave of contemporary crystal skulls created by various carvers (mostly in Brazil) surfaces for sale to the general public.
1986: Historic writer, reporter and author, Frank Joseph obtains from Frank Dorland, a cement model of the Mitchell-Hedges Crystal Skull. He works with Peggy C. Caldwell, a forensic anthropologist and forensic artist Detective Frank Domingo who are able to reconstruct the face of a young Indian-looking woman by using this model.
1986-1987: George, a European businessman, receives a large crystal skull from an elderly man in South America as a gift. (Author’s Note: This crystal skull is later known as “Synergy”.)
1988 : During this year are the first public appearances of “MAX”, the Texas Crystal Skull, throughout the western part of the U.S.
1989: The release of the book, Mysteries of the Crystal Skulls Revealed (MCSR) by co-authors Sandra Bowen, F. R. ‘Nick’ Nocerino and R. “Joshua” Shapiro. This book includes information about several ancient crystal skulls, research and spiritually channeled information.
1991: Joky van Dieten, living in Costa Rica, while reading the book MCSR discovers a crystal store near Los Angeles that is listed. She intuitively feels that she must call this store to find an ancient skull for sale. She is contacted several days later by the owner and they make an agreement for her to acquire a human-sized smoky quartz skull which eventually becomes known as the crystal skull, “ET”.
1992: Frank Dorland releases his book entitled Holy Ice. This book shares Mr. Dorland’s experiences and research with the Mitchell-Hedges Skull as well as a great deal of information about quartz crystals.
1992: The Wolf Song II Conference is held in Texas (USA). This conference is a vision of Grandmother Twylah of the Seneca Nation to provide a space for indigenous elders to meet and share their sacred traditions. At this second gathering, the crystal skull “MAX” is present. The skull is welcomed and honored by the various indigenous elders.
1993: Floyd Petri, while working as a federal U.S. CID agent in Austin, Texas is drawn to a video/crystal store there and discovers a human-sized crystal skull (“Windsong”).
1995: During an excavation of a Mayan site in the Guerro state of Mexico, F. R. ‘Nick” Nocerino psychically links to a crystal skull that is found underground in a hidden tomb (from the book by Morton and Thomas). This clear quartz skull asks to be called “Sha Na Ra.”
1995: DaEl Walker receives a clear quartz skull which he calls “Grandmother Rainbow” from one of his students in trade. Purportedly this crystal skull was given to this person’s grandfather from two priests in Guatemala.
1995: The Smithsonian Institute receives a large hollow crystal skull that is donated to their organization from an anonymous source through the normal mail.
Mid 1990’s : The next wave of contemporary crystal skulls being created by various modern carvers reaches the market. These crystal skulls are very precise and sophisticated related to their form and shape as compared to a human bone skull. This trend continues into the 21 st century.
1996 : A series of tests were conducted at the British Museum in London for the purpose of authenticated various crystal skulls believed to be quite old. A number of crystal skulls were brought to the museum to participate in these experiments. This research project is a joint effort conducted by the museum and works with a production team from the BBC. The Museum believes most of the crystal skulls tested were of more modern construction but also refused to make comments on two of the purportedly ancient crystal skulls.
1996: The BBC broadcasts a show entitled “The Mystery of the Crystal Skulls” on their Everyman series. This is the program that was produced by Morton and Thomas which also includes a report about the research conducted at the British Museum. This show is aired on the A&E cable channel in the U.S. in 1997.
1997: David Leslie buys a linen basket (a metal trunk) in England at a local market and discovers 5 months later it contains a clear quartz skull covered by a cloth. (Author’s Note: This crystal skull is later to be known as “Skully”.)
1997: Chris Morton and Ceri Louise Thomas publish a book based on the information and interviews gathered from their TV documentary which is given the same title as their program. This book is much more comprehensive than the documentary.
1998 : David Leslie publicly invites psychics or spiritual channelers in England to work and have contact with his crystal skull. The purpose of this invitation is to collect information about the skull’s history and purpose through a paranormal approach. He places numerous ads in several spiritually orientated publications and thousands of people respond. Over 400 private sessions are conducted with various individuals during the summer of this year.
2000+: Crystal Skull research is conducted on behalf of the World Mystery Research Center in the U.S. and Europe utilizing various ancient, old and contemporary crystal skulls and featuring a variety of different electronic devices
Within the last ten years or so, there are quite a number of newly discovered crystal skulls that have surfaced which are being considered ancient or old skulls. Also we continue to hear rumors and reports about other crystal skulls which are held in private hands that may soon be revealed to the public. There are far more (purportedly) ancient and old crystal skulls that are known today than the two or three that were publicly available during the early part of the 20th century.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)